Aaron (אַהֲרֹן)

Hebrew. The brother of Moses and great-grandson of Levi, the 3rd son of Jacob by Leah, and accordingly also known as Aaron the Levite. He was the elder son of Amram and Jochebed and three years older than Moses. The meaning of his name is uncertain, but might be “bringer of light”, a name reminiscent of Lucifer. He was the first High Priest of the Old Law and as such a pre-figuration of Jesus Christ, the first and sole Sovereign Priest of the New Testament. He married Elisheba, the daughter of Amminadab of the house of Judah, by whom he had four sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar. He was sent to Egypt by God to speak on behalf of Moses and stand by him, especially during his court dealings with Pharaoh. When Moses ascended the mount to receive the Ten Commandments, Aaron and his two sons, Nadab and Abihu, along with seventy elders of the tribe of Israel, accompanied him part of the way, but whilst Moses remained on the mountain, Aaron returned to the people and they made a golden calf as an object of worship. When Moses returned to the camp, Aaron was rebuked for his part in this, but finally forgiven. After many years in the desert, the chiefs of the tribes were each required to bring to Moses a rod bearing on it the name of his tribe, which were, along with the rod of Aaron for the tribe of Levi, laid up overnight in the tabernacle. In the morning it was found that while the other rods remained unchanged, that of Aaron budded, blossomed and yielded almonds. This rod was afterwards preserved in the tabernacle as a memorial of the divine attestation of his appointment to the priesthood.

Adam (אָדָם‎)

1. Hebrew. “Man” or “mankind”, but also “dust”, thus endorsing the text of Genesis 2:7 “And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground”. In Hebrew, the word adamah (אֲדָמָה) means “earth” or “ground”. Being the first human and made from dust it is thus only logical that he was named Adam. More than a name it thus also refers to his nature as a human being. Though the word for man is in the singular, when in the text a pronoun is used, it is rendered by the plural them, supporting the idea that the word may be used more broadly to indicate all humankind. From one of Adam's ribs, God created Eve, as his wife and a suitable companion. Though, through the cunning deceit of the serpent she brought about the fall of man, as she gave the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil unto Adam to eat, thus violating God's direct commandment, not to eat from it. The root אדם is also used in the word adam (אָדַם) which means “to become red” or “to blush”, perhaps a reference to the shame that befell Adam after he had sinned, by eating from the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge.

2. Name of a city mentioned in Joshua 3:16. It is situated near Zar'ethan, a city in the middle of the Jordan valley.

adelphopoiesis (ἀδελφοποίησις)

Greek. “Brother-making”. Term for a fraternization ceremony which was practiced at some point in the past by various Christian churches, mainly by the Eastern Orthodox Church, to spiritually unite two people of the same sex, usually men. The term derives from the Greek words adelphos (ἀδελφός), meaning “brother” and poi-eo (ποιέω), which translates as “I make”. Being a same-sex union, though not romantic nor carnal but only referring to the biological condition of the partakers, some modern historians have compared it to the disputed present-day gay marriages, an interpretation contested by most theologians, who see the rite merely as a pact between religious brothers.

adyton (ἄδυτον)

Greek. “Not to be entered”, i.e. a restricted area or place not to be entered. The term refers to the inner-most sacred shrine of a Greek or Roman temple, usually a small area at the farthest end of the cella from the entrance. Frequently, such shrines are associated with chthonic deities and would often house the cult image of a god. Such spaces were reserved for oracles, priests or acolytes, and not open to the general public. The adyton is reminiscent of the Hebrew Holy of Holies, the inner sanctuary and most sacred site in traditional Judaism. One existed in the temple to Apollo at Delphi, perhaps a left-over from Gaia's worship there, as mentioned in the Oresteia (Ὀρέστεια), a trilogy of Greek tragedies written by Aeschylus. In Latin it is known as adytum. See also Kodesh Hakodashim.

Ælfric of Eynsham

Name of a 10th-century (ca. 957 – ca. 1010) Anglo-Saxon Benedictine monk and prolific writer in Old English of hagiography, homilies, biblical commentaries, and other genres. He is best known for his three homiletic collections (about 120 sermons), the first English translations of passages from several Old Testament books, pastoral letters, and other pedagogical materials. Ælfric probably came from a parish near Winchester where he joined a Benedictine abbey, then under the rule of Aelthelwold, a reforming clergyman who was a follower of the Benedictine Rule. When he first arrived at the abbey he was shocked by the behaviour of the monks. Writing 40 years later, Ælfric described them as drunken and riotous, with wives and children! Aethelwold saw in Ælfric a righteous monk and educated him wisely so that he in turn could take on responsibilities. When he was about thirty he was sent to Cerne Abbey in Dorset (southwest England) to help establish the Rule of Benedict. It was there that he did most of his writing as well as teaching. In 998, a ruthless Viking army raided the Dorset countryside. In 1005 Ælfric was sent to Eynsham to be its first Abbot, when it was given its foundation Charter. He died about 5 years later, probably at the age of 53. The exact date is not known, but there are no more of his writings after 1010. He is also known variously as Ælfric Grammaticus, Ælfric of Cerne and Ælfric the Homilist.

agon (αγών)

Greek. “Struggle” or “contest”. Term that can refer to athletic contests, such as the Olympics, but which can also signify a battle or a trial, i.e. a legal battle. Thus it may also be a speech delivered in a court or the main argument of a speech. From this, it becomes the technical term for the main debate or rhetorical argument in an Old Comedy. Pronounced and also spelled agoon.

Alpha (α)

The first letter of the Greek alphabet. In combination with Omega, the last letter of the Greek alphabet, it is also a title of Christ, i.e. “I am the Alpha and the Omega”, who is and who was and who is to come, as stated in Revelation. This relates to several texts in the Old Testament where God the LORD said “I am He, I am the first, and I am the last”.

Anglicanism

The Christian tradition and ecclesiastical system originating from the Church of England, characterized by a blend of Reformation theology and historic Catholic liturgy. It upholds the authority of Scripture (sola scriptura), emphasizes justification by faith, and maintains a hierarchical structure of church governance under bishops (episcopacy). Anglicanism is distinguished by its liturgical practices, the Book of Common Prayer, and its often moderate or “via media” approach, seeking a balance between Catholic and Protestant elements in doctrine, worship, and church order. The term derives from the Medieval Latin anglicanus, meaning “English,” reflecting its origins in England. Anglicanism formally emerged in the 16th century during the English Reformation, closely associated with King Henry VIII, who broke from the Roman Catholic Church in 1534 after Pope Clement VII refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. The Act of Supremacy declared Henry VIII the Supreme Head of the Church of England, establishing Anglicanism as a distinct ecclesiastical body. While initially driven by political and personal motives, the church quickly incorporated theological reforms influenced by continental Protestantism, including aspects of Lutheran and Reformed doctrines. Subsequent monarchs, such as Edward VI and Elizabeth I, shaped its doctrinal and liturgical identity, with Elizabeth’s Religious Settlement of 1559 defining a moderate “via media” between Catholicism and Protestantism. The English monarch continues to serve as the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, symbolizing the union of church and state, while spiritual leadership is exercised by the Archbishop of Canterbury and the episcopal hierarchy.

Apocrypha (ἀπόκρυφα)

Greek. “Those having been hidden away”. Term applied to texts of uncertain authenticity or to writings where the legitimacy of authorship is in question. In Judeo-Christian theology, the word apocrypha refers to specific texts that some traditions do not consider as canonical or biblical. Some of the Jewish apocrypha were part of the regular religious literature of the early Christians.

archangel

An angel of a higher rank. The name derives of the Greek archangelos (αρχάγγελος). Their total at least numbers seven, with the chief one being the archangel Michael, followed by two other higher archangels, who are known by the names Gabriel and Raphael. According to the traditional Christian angelic hierarchy there are three triads or spheres of celestial beings. Archangels together with angels belong to the lowest order in the third sphere, being the only celestial beings directly involved in the affairs of the world of men. The highest ranking celestial beings therefore are the ones in the first triad, which is headed by the Seraphim, followed by the Cherubim and the Erelim, who are all related to the throne of God the Father.

Archbishop of Canterbury

The senior bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, spiritual head of the Anglican Communion worldwide, and holder of the see at Canterbury, England. The Archbishop presides over church governance, represents the church in national and international matters, consecrates bishops, and provides spiritual guidance, serving as the symbolic and administrative leader of Anglicanism.

Archbishop of York

The second most senior bishop in the Church of England, subordinate only to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the metropolitan of the Province of York, which covers the northern part of England. The Archbishop of York assists in overseeing church governance, ordains and consecrates clergy, and represents the Church in both religious and civic matters, serving as a key figure in the leadership of the Anglican Communion.

Arianism

A theological doctrine in early Christianity, named after the Alexandrian priest Arius (c. 256–336 AD), which held that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was not co-eternal or consubstantial with God the Father, but a created being who existed before the world was made. Arianism challenged the traditional understanding of the Trinity, asserting a hierarchy within the Godhead rather than equality among the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The doctrine sparked major controversy in the early Church, leading to the First Council of Nicaea (325 AD), where it was condemned as heretical and countered with the formulation of the Nicene Creed, which affirmed the Son’s full divinity and consubstantiality with the Father. Despite condemnation, Arianism persisted in various regions for several centuries, particularly among some Germanic tribes.

Arius

A Christian presbyter (c. 256–336 AD) from Alexandria, Egypt, Arius is best known as the founder of Arianism, a Theological doctrine asserting that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was a created being and not co-eternal with God the Father. His teachings challenged the emerging orthodox understanding of the Trinity and sparked a major controversy in the early Church. Arius' views prompted the First Council of Nicaea (325 AD), convened by Emperor Constantine I, which condemned Arianism as heresy and affirmed the Nicene doctrine that the Son is homoousios (ὁμοούσιος), i.e. “of the same essence” as the Father. Arius continued to influence Christian communities in parts of the Eastern Roman Empire until his death in 336 AD. Although Arianism had largely disappeared from the Eastern Empire by the sixth century, it persisted in parts of Western Europe, particularly among Germanic kingdoms such as the Visigoths in Spain, the Ostrogoths in Italy, and the Burgundians and Lombards in parts of Gaul and Italy, whose earlier conversions to Christianity had not fully embraced Nicene orthodoxy. In response, the Western Church formally adopted the Filioque clause at the Third Council of Toledo (589 AD) in Spain, in the context of the conversion of the Visigothic kingdom to Nicene Christianity. The Filioque was part of broader efforts to affirm Trinitarian orthodoxy against residual Arian beliefs. The inclusion of the Filioque clause in the Latin Church would later become one of the theological and doctrinal disputes contributing to the Great Schism of 1054, also called the East–West Schism.

Assyria (Ἀσσυρία)

A major ancient Near Eastern kingdom frequently mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, where it is known as Asshur (אֲשׁוּר). It is located in the northern Mesopotamian region along the upper Tigris River. In biblical texts, Assyria is both a geographical and political entity, often representing a powerful and sometimes hostile empire that interacts with Israel and Judah. It is first associated with the descendants of Shem through Asshur (Genesis 10:11–12), and later narratives depict Assyria as the conqueror of the northern kingdom of Israel, carrying the Israelites into exile (2 Kings 17:6). Prophetic literature, including Isaiah, Micah, and Nahum, frequently portrays Assyria as an instrument of divine judgment as well as a symbol of human pride and oppression. The biblical portrayal emphasizes Assyria’s military might, its role in shaping the history of Israel and Judah, and its ultimate subjugation by God, reflecting both historical and theological perspectives on empire, power, and divine sovereignty.