Macedonianism

A 4th-century theological doctrine that denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit, also known as the Pneumatomachian heresy. Named after Macedonius I, bishop of Constantinople, its adherents accepted the divinity of the Father and the Son but maintained that the Holy Spirit was a created being and subordinate to them. This view was condemned by the First Council of Constantinople (381 AD), which affirmed the full divinity of the Holy Spirit and incorporated this teaching into the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed. Macedonianism is considered one of the key heresies addressed in early Trinitarian theology, alongside Arianism.

Macedonius I

A fourth-century ecclesiastical leader and Bishop of Constantinople, primarily remembered for his role in the development of the Pneumatomachian heresy. Macedonius I was bishop of Constantinople from approximately 342 to 360 AD. He was associated with the Arian controversy and became known for teachings that denied the full divinity of the Holy Spirit, asserting that the Spirit was a created being subordinate to the Father and the Son. These views, propagated by his followers after his death, gave rise to the Pneumatomachian heresy. The term Pneumatomachian derives from the Greek words pneuma (πνεῦμα), meaning “spirit”, and machē (μάχη), meaning “fight” or “battle”, and thus translates to “those who fight against the Spirit”. Macedonius was twice deposed from his episcopal office and eventually exiled, dying around 360 AD. His doctrine was later condemned by the First Council of Constantinople (381 AD), which affirmed the full divinity of the Holy Spirit and incorporated this teaching into the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed.

Martin Lempereur

See Merten de Keyser.

Martin Luther

A German theologian, Catholic monk, and seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation, whose teachings fundamentally reshaped Western Christianity, Martin Luther was closely connected with Philip Melanchthon, a fellow reformer, humanist scholar, and the first systematic theologian of the Reformation. Born in Eisleben, Saxony, in the Holy Roman Empire, Luther initially pursued a career in law before entering the Augustinian monastery in 1505, where he was ordained a priest and later became a professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg. Philip Melanchthon, born Philipp Schwartzerdt in 1497, joined Wittenberg as a professor of Greek at Luther’s invitation and became his closest collaborator, systematizing Luther’s ideas and shaping Lutheran theology for both clergy and laity. Luther’s theological convictions emerged from a deep struggle with the concepts of sin and divine righteousness. In 1517, Luther famously published his Ninety-Five Theses (Disputatio pro Declaratione Virtutis Indulgentiarum), challenging the sale of indulgences and the authority of the papacy. This act, symbolized by his reputed posting of the theses on the door of the Castle Church (Schlosskirche) in Wittenberg, ignited widespread debate and marked the beginning of the Reformation. Central to Luther’s theology was the doctrine of justification by faith alone (Sola Fide), asserting that salvation is granted by God’s grace through faith rather than by human works, a concept Philip Melanchthon systematized in his Loci Communes and the Augsburg Confession. Luther also upheld the authority of Scripture alone (Sola Scriptura) as the ultimate source of Christian truth, while Melanchthon complemented him by emphasizing moral and intellectual instruction rooted in Scripture. Luther translated the Bible into German, making it accessible to laypeople and thereby shaping both religious practice and the German language itself, and Melanchthon assisted in refining and teaching the translation. Luther’s hymns, including Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott (A Mighty Fortress Is Our God), helped establish congregational singing as a central element of Protestant worship. Excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1521 and declared an outlaw by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Luther found refuge under the protection of Frederick the Wise at Wartburg Castle, where he continued his translation and writing, while Melanchthon advanced Reformation education and theology at Wittenberg. Luther’s ideas spread rapidly across Europe, giving rise to numerous Protestant movements and profoundly influencing theology, education, and politics. His legacy endures in the Lutheran tradition and in broader Protestantism, which continues to uphold his central tenets of faith, grace, and Scripture, a legacy solidified through Melanchthon's scholarship and systematic teaching. Martin Luther died on 18 February 1546 in Eisleben, the same town where he was born, leaving behind a spiritual and intellectual revolution that transformed the course of Christian history.

Merten de Keyser

The Flemish name of Martin Lempereur, a 16th-century French printer and publisher, who worked mainly in Antwerp (Flanders). He printed the first complete French and English Bible translations, as well as a number of works by English Protestant authors, including several works of William Tyndale. He is also known by his Latinized name Martinus Caesar.

Michael (מִיכָאֵל)

Hebrew. “Who is like God”. Name of the first archangel, who was known as a true servant of God. He was given the highest rank and presides over all other angels. He is described as a warrior and advocate for Israel, serving as one who stands for the people of Israel in time of conflict and who intercedes for them before God. He is considered a saint by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Church. In Islam, Michael is believed to be the archangel of mercy, responsible for bringing rain and thunder to the Earth. Being the leader of the celestial army in a battle with Satan, he is usually represented in the dress of a warrior.