Pentateuch

Name derived from the Greek word Pentateuchos (Πεντάτευχος), meaning “Five Books” and referring to the first five books of the Hebrew Scriptures and the Christian Old Testament, i.e. Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy.

Petros (Πέτρος)

Greek name for Peter, a leader of the early Christian church, who was one of Twelve Apostles, chosen by Christ from his first disciples. He was a Galilean fisherman and was with Jesus during events witnessed by only a few apostles, such as the Transfiguration. Roman Catholic tradition claims that he was the first Bishop of Rome and hence the first Pope. He is the author of two canonical epistles and a martyr, who was crucified upside down during the reign of Nero, and buried in Rome. In art, he is habitually depicted holding the keys to the kingdom of heaven. In Hebrew, he is called Shim‘on (שִׁמְעוֹן), usually rendered in Greek as Simōn (Σίμων) and transliterated into English as Simon, whereas in Aramaic, he is known as Kepha (כֵּיפָא), meaning “rock”, a name translated into Greek as Petros (Πέτρος) and into English as Peter.

Philip Melanchthon

A German Lutheran reformer, theologian, scholar, and humanist, renowned as Martin Luther's closest collaborator and the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation. Born in Bretten on 16 February 1497 as Philipp Schwartzerdt, he was the son of Georg Schwarzerdt, an armourer, and Barbara Reuter, and studied at Pforzheim, Heidelberg, and Tübingen, excelling in Greek and philosophy. Influenced by his great-uncle, the humanist Johann Reuchlin, he Hellenized his surname Schwartzerdt, which means “black earth” in German, to the Greek equivalent Melanchthon (Μελάγχθων). In Greek, melas (μέλας) means “black” and chthōn (χθών) means “earth” or “soil,” so Melanchthon literally translates to “black earth.” He adopted this name in accordance with the humanist custom of Hellenizing surnames. At 21, he became professor of Greek at the University of Wittenberg, where he met Martin Luther and quickly became a key ally, teaching Scripture and systematizing Lutheran theology. His Loci Communes (1521) was the first Protestant dogmatic textbook, emphasizing salvation by faith alone. Melanchthon played a central role in drafting the Augsburg Confession (1530) and its Apology, defending Lutheran doctrine against Catholic objections. He was also a major figure in educational reform, reorganizing schools and universities to integrate humanistic learning with theological instruction, earning him the title Praeceptor Germaniae (Teacher of Germany). Following Martin Luther's death, he emerged as the intellectual leader of the Lutheran Reformation, though his moderate positions during the Interim controversies and debates over the Lord’s Supper drew criticism from stricter Lutherans. Theologically, he emphasized justification by faith, moral discipline, and the unity of divine law and Gospel, allowing a role for human will in conversion and seeking reconciliation between revelation and reason. A prolific writer, he produced commentaries on Scripture, catechisms, works on ethics and philosophy, and treatises on education, including Epitome Philosophiae Moralis (1538) and Ethicae Doctrinae Elementa (1550). Physically frail but intellectually formidable, he was known for moderation, humility, and devotion to peace, maintaining a devoted domestic life and extensive scholarly correspondence. He died in Wittenberg on 19 April 1560 and was buried beside Luther in the Schlosskirche. Melanchthon’s synthesis of humanism and theology profoundly shaped Protestant thought and education, providing the intellectual structure of Lutheranism and balancing faith with reason and doctrine with learning, and he is commemorated in Lutheran calendars on 16 February and 25 June.

Pilgrim's Progress

A Christian allegorical story written by John Bunyan in two parts, of which the first one was published in 1678. It describes the journey of a man named Christian, from “this world to that which is to come”, i.e. from his hometown, metaphorically called the “City of Destruction”, to heaven or the “Celestial City”. The narrative is delivered under the similitude of a dream and the protagonist finds himself weighed down by a great burden, i.e. his sins, which would cause him to sink into hell. He then meets Evangelist, who shows him the way to salvation through the “Wicket Gate”, where he is directed by “Good Will” (Christ) to the “Place of Deliverance”, i.e. the Cross, to be relieved  from his burden. Though, before that and on his way over to the “Wicket Gate”, Christian is diverted and obstructed by all sorts of abstractions and people, including members of his own family, who try to keep him from leaving his hometown or from reaching his goal. As Christian passes through different stages of his journey, he meets places and personages with allegorical names, revealing their intent or nature. Characters in the story bear names such as “Mr. Worldly Wiseman”, “Obstinate”, “Pliable” and the “Giant Despair”, while places include names like the “Slough Of Despond”, the “Hill of Difficulty”, “Doubting Castle”, the “Valley of the Shadow of Death”, etc. The story is steeped in Biblical paraphrases and became so popular that it is the most read book after the Bible.

Pishon (פישון)

Name of one of four rivers mentioned in Genesis 2:11, along with the Gihon, Tigris and Euphrates. It is described as a mountain stream arising within the Garden of Eden and encircling “the entire land of Havilah”. The Jewish-Roman historian Flavius Josephus identified the Pishon with the river Ganges. Also transcribed Pison. See also Gihon.

Pneumatomachian heresy

A fourth-century theological doctrine that denied the full divinity of the Holy Spirit. Its adherents accepted the Father and the Son as fully divine but regarded the Holy Spirit as a created being, subordinate to them. The term Pneumatomachian derives from the Greek words pneuma (πνεῦμα), meaning “spirit”, and machē (μάχη), meaning “fight” or “battle”, and thus literally means “those who fight against the Spirit”. This heresy was condemned by the First Council of Constantinople in 381 AD, which affirmed that the Holy Spirit is fully divine and worshipped equally with the Father and the Son, a declaration incorporated into the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed. This false doctrine is also known as Macedonianism, after Macedonius I, a bishop of Constantinople who was twice deposed and eventually exiled, and who was associated with the development of the heresy denying the full divinity of the Holy Spirit.

predestination

Theological doctrine which asserts that God, in His sovereignty, has eternally determined the ultimate fate of every individual, deciding in advance who will be saved (the elect) and who will be condemned (the reprobate). In this view, salvation is entirely dependent on God’s will and not on human merit or actions. Predestination is most closely associated with Calvinist and theology, though concepts of divine foreordination also appear in other Christian traditions. It emphasizes God’s omniscience and omnipotence, often raising questions about human free will and responsibility.

Presbyterianism

A branch of Protestant Christianity characterised by a distinctive form of church governance in which authority is vested in assemblies of elders, known as presbyters, rather than in a hierarchical system led by bishops. The term derives from the Greek presbyteros (πρεσβύτερος), meaning “elder.” It originated during the 16th-century Reformation, primarily under the influence of the French theologian John Calvin and the Scottish reformer John Knox. Presbyterianism became especially prominent in Scotland, where it developed into the national church and later spread to England, Ireland, North America, and various regions of Africa and Asia. Doctrinally, Presbyterianism adheres to Reformed theology, emphasising the sovereignty of God, the authority of Scripture, salvation by grace through faith, and the priesthood of all believers. Its principal confessional standards include the Westminster Confession of Faith (1646) and the Shorter and Larger Catechisms. Church governance operates through a representative structure comprising successive courts: the session at the congregational level, the presbytery at the regional level, the synod at the provincial or intermediate level, and the general assembly at the national level. Ministers and lay elders share authority equally within these bodies. Worship in Presbyterianism traditionally emphasises simplicity, the preaching of the Word, and the sacraments of Baptism and the Lord’s Supper, while many Presbyterian churches also engage actively in education, social justice, and ecumenical work. Prominent Presbyterian denominations include the Church of Scotland, the Presbyterian Church U.S.A., the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, and the Presbyterian Church of Korea, among others. Presbyterianism shares Calvinist theology, including predestination and the spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but differs in its structured, representative church government. It therefore also differs from Lutheranism, which teaches the real, physical presence of Christ in the Eucharist and generally rejects strict predestination.

Protestantism

The branch of Christianity that originated with the Reformation in the 16th century, encompassing the beliefs, practices, and churches that separated from the Roman Catholic Church. The term derives from the Latin protestari, meaning “to publicly declare or testify”, i.e. “to protest”, referring originally to the German princes and reformers who protested the decisions of the Diet of Speyer in 1529. Protestantism emphasizes the authority of Scripture (sola scriptura), justification by faith alone (sola fide), the priesthood of all believers, and salvation by God’s grace rather than human works. It includes numerous denominations, such as Lutheranism, Calvinism, Presbyterianism, Zwinglianism and Anglicanism, which share these core principles while differing in theology, worship, and church governance. Though these major branches of Protestantism share the central Reformation principles of sola scriptura (Scripture alone) and sola fide (justification by faith), they differ in sacramental theology, predestination, and church governance. Lutheranism teaches the real, physical presence of Christ in the Eucharist (consubstantiation), generally rejects strict predestination, and emphasizes salvation by faith alone. Zwinglianism views the Lord’s Supper as purely symbolic, serving as a memorial of Christ's sacrifice, stresses biblical authority, and often advocates close integration of church and civil governance. Calvinism emphasizes God’s absolute sovereignty, strict predestination, and the spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist, limiting salvation to the elect, while promoting a structured, representative church polity. Presbyterianism shares Calvinist theology, including predestination and the spiritual presence in the Eucharist, but is distinguished by a formalized, representative system of church government led by elders. Anglicanism, by contrast, blends Reformation theology with traditional Catholic liturgy and episcopal governance, typically teaching a spiritual or “real” presence in the Eucharist, affirming justification by faith, and maintaining a hierarchical structure under bishops while allowing some doctrinal latitude. Collectively, these branches illustrate the diversity of Protestantism in interpreting Scripture, sacramental practice, and ecclesiastical organization.